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ML-For-Beginners/2-Regression/2-Data/solution/R/lesson_2.html

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<style type="text/css">
.tocify {
width: 20%;
max-height: 90%;
overflow: auto;
margin-left: 2%;
position: fixed;
border: 1px solid #ccc;
border-radius: 6px;
}
.tocify ul, .tocify li {
list-style: none;
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
border: none;
line-height: 30px;
}
.tocify-header {
text-indent: 10px;
}
.tocify-subheader {
text-indent: 20px;
display: none;
}
.tocify-subheader li {
font-size: 12px;
}
.tocify-subheader .tocify-subheader {
text-indent: 30px;
}
.tocify-subheader .tocify-subheader .tocify-subheader {
text-indent: 40px;
}
.tocify-subheader .tocify-subheader .tocify-subheader .tocify-subheader {
text-indent: 50px;
}
.tocify-subheader .tocify-subheader .tocify-subheader .tocify-subheader .tocify-subheader {
text-indent: 60px;
}
.tocify .tocify-item > a, .tocify .nav-list .nav-header {
margin: 0px;
}
.tocify .tocify-item a, .tocify .list-group-item {
padding: 5px;
}
.tocify .nav-pills > li {
float: none;
}
</style>
<script>/* jquery Tocify - v1.9.1 - 2013-10-22
* http://www.gregfranko.com/jquery.tocify.js/
* Copyright (c) 2013 Greg Franko; Licensed MIT */
// Immediately-Invoked Function Expression (IIFE) [Ben Alman Blog Post](http://benalman.com/news/2010/11/immediately-invoked-function-expression/) that calls another IIFE that contains all of the plugin logic. I used this pattern so that anyone viewing this code would not have to scroll to the bottom of the page to view the local parameters that were passed to the main IIFE.
(function(tocify) {
// ECMAScript 5 Strict Mode: [John Resig Blog Post](http://ejohn.org/blog/ecmascript-5-strict-mode-json-and-more/)
"use strict";
// Calls the second IIFE and locally passes in the global jQuery, window, and document objects
tocify(window.jQuery, window, document);
}
// Locally passes in `jQuery`, the `window` object, the `document` object, and an `undefined` variable. The `jQuery`, `window` and `document` objects are passed in locally, to improve performance, since javascript first searches for a variable match within the local variables set before searching the global variables set. All of the global variables are also passed in locally to be minifier friendly. `undefined` can be passed in locally, because it is not a reserved word in JavaScript.
(function($, window, document, undefined) {
// ECMAScript 5 Strict Mode: [John Resig Blog Post](http://ejohn.org/blog/ecmascript-5-strict-mode-json-and-more/)
"use strict";
var tocClassName = "tocify",
tocClass = "." + tocClassName,
tocFocusClassName = "tocify-focus",
tocHoverClassName = "tocify-hover",
hideTocClassName = "tocify-hide",
hideTocClass = "." + hideTocClassName,
headerClassName = "tocify-header",
headerClass = "." + headerClassName,
subheaderClassName = "tocify-subheader",
subheaderClass = "." + subheaderClassName,
itemClassName = "tocify-item",
itemClass = "." + itemClassName,
extendPageClassName = "tocify-extend-page",
extendPageClass = "." + extendPageClassName;
// Calling the jQueryUI Widget Factory Method
$.widget("toc.tocify", {
//Plugin version
version: "1.9.1",
// These options will be used as defaults
options: {
// **context**: Accepts String: Any jQuery selector
// The container element that holds all of the elements used to generate the table of contents
context: "body",
// **ignoreSelector**: Accepts String: Any jQuery selector
// A selector to any element that would be matched by selectors that you wish to be ignored
ignoreSelector: null,
// **selectors**: Accepts an Array of Strings: Any jQuery selectors
// The element's used to generate the table of contents. The order is very important since it will determine the table of content's nesting structure
selectors: "h1, h2, h3",
// **showAndHide**: Accepts a boolean: true or false
// Used to determine if elements should be shown and hidden
showAndHide: true,
// **showEffect**: Accepts String: "none", "fadeIn", "show", or "slideDown"
// Used to display any of the table of contents nested items
showEffect: "slideDown",
// **showEffectSpeed**: Accepts Number (milliseconds) or String: "slow", "medium", or "fast"
// The time duration of the show animation
showEffectSpeed: "medium",
// **hideEffect**: Accepts String: "none", "fadeOut", "hide", or "slideUp"
// Used to hide any of the table of contents nested items
hideEffect: "slideUp",
// **hideEffectSpeed**: Accepts Number (milliseconds) or String: "slow", "medium", or "fast"
// The time duration of the hide animation
hideEffectSpeed: "medium",
// **smoothScroll**: Accepts a boolean: true or false
// Determines if a jQuery animation should be used to scroll to specific table of contents items on the page
smoothScroll: true,
// **smoothScrollSpeed**: Accepts Number (milliseconds) or String: "slow", "medium", or "fast"
// The time duration of the smoothScroll animation
smoothScrollSpeed: "medium",
// **scrollTo**: Accepts Number (pixels)
// The amount of space between the top of page and the selected table of contents item after the page has been scrolled
scrollTo: 0,
// **showAndHideOnScroll**: Accepts a boolean: true or false
// Determines if table of contents nested items should be shown and hidden while scrolling
showAndHideOnScroll: true,
// **highlightOnScroll**: Accepts a boolean: true or false
// Determines if table of contents nested items should be highlighted (set to a different color) while scrolling
highlightOnScroll: true,
// **highlightOffset**: Accepts a number
// The offset distance in pixels to trigger the next active table of contents item
highlightOffset: 40,
// **theme**: Accepts a string: "bootstrap", "jqueryui", or "none"
// Determines if Twitter Bootstrap, jQueryUI, or Tocify classes should be added to the table of contents
theme: "bootstrap",
// **extendPage**: Accepts a boolean: true or false
// If a user scrolls to the bottom of the page and the page is not tall enough to scroll to the last table of contents item, then the page height is increased
extendPage: true,
// **extendPageOffset**: Accepts a number: pixels
// How close to the bottom of the page a user must scroll before the page is extended
extendPageOffset: 100,
// **history**: Accepts a boolean: true or false
// Adds a hash to the page url to maintain history
history: true,
// **scrollHistory**: Accepts a boolean: true or false
// Adds a hash to the page url, to maintain history, when scrolling to a TOC item
scrollHistory: false,
// **hashGenerator**: How the hash value (the anchor segment of the URL, following the
// # character) will be generated.
//
// "compact" (default) - #CompressesEverythingTogether
// "pretty" - #looks-like-a-nice-url-and-is-easily-readable
// function(text, element){} - Your own hash generation function that accepts the text as an
// argument, and returns the hash value.
hashGenerator: "compact",
// **highlightDefault**: Accepts a boolean: true or false
// Set's the first TOC item as active if no other TOC item is active.
highlightDefault: true
},
// _Create
// -------
// Constructs the plugin. Only called once.
_create: function() {
var self = this;
self.extendPageScroll = true;
// Internal array that keeps track of all TOC items (Helps to recognize if there are duplicate TOC item strings)
self.items = [];
// Generates the HTML for the dynamic table of contents
self._generateToc();
// Adds CSS classes to the newly generated table of contents HTML
self._addCSSClasses();
self.webkit = (function() {
for (var prop in window) {
if (prop) {
if (prop.toLowerCase().indexOf("webkit") !== -1) {
return true;
}
}
}
return false;
}());
// Adds jQuery event handlers to the newly generated table of contents
self._setEventHandlers();
// Binding to the Window load event to make sure the correct scrollTop is calculated
$(window).on("load", function() {
// Sets the active TOC item
self._setActiveElement(true);
// Once all animations on the page are complete, this callback function will be called
$("html, body").promise().done(function() {
setTimeout(function() {
self.extendPageScroll = false;
}, 0);
});
});
},
// _generateToc
// ------------
// Generates the HTML for the dynamic table of contents
_generateToc: function() {
// _Local variables_
// Stores the plugin context in the self variable
var self = this,
// All of the HTML tags found within the context provided (i.e. body) that match the top level jQuery selector above
firstElem,
// Instantiated variable that will store the top level newly created unordered list DOM element
ul,
ignoreSelector = self.options.ignoreSelector;
// Determine the element to start the toc with
// get all the top level selectors
firstElem = [];
var selectors = this.options.selectors.replace(/ /g, "").split(",");
// find the first set that have at least one non-ignored element
for(var i = 0; i < selectors.length; i++) {
var foundSelectors = $(this.options.context).find(selectors[i]);
for (var s = 0; s < foundSelectors.length; s++) {
if (!$(foundSelectors[s]).is(ignoreSelector)) {
firstElem = foundSelectors;
break;
}
}
if (firstElem.length> 0)
break;
}
if (!firstElem.length) {
self.element.addClass(hideTocClassName);
return;
}
self.element.addClass(tocClassName);
// Loops through each top level selector
firstElem.each(function(index) {
//If the element matches the ignoreSelector then we skip it
if ($(this).is(ignoreSelector)) {
return;
}
// Creates an unordered list HTML element and adds a dynamic ID and standard class name
ul = $("<ul/>", {
"id": headerClassName + index,
"class": headerClassName
}).
// Appends a top level list item HTML element to the previously created HTML header
append(self._nestElements($(this), index));
// Add the created unordered list element to the HTML element calling the plugin
self.element.append(ul);
// Finds all of the HTML tags between the header and subheader elements
$(this).nextUntil(this.nodeName.toLowerCase()).each(function() {
// If there are no nested subheader elemements
if ($(this).find(self.options.selectors).length === 0) {
// Loops through all of the subheader elements
$(this).filter(self.options.selectors).each(function() {
//If the element matches the ignoreSelector then we skip it
if ($(this).is(ignoreSelector)) {
return;
}
self._appendSubheaders.call(this, self, ul);
});
}
// If there are nested subheader elements
else {
// Loops through all of the subheader elements
$(this).find(self.options.selectors).each(function() {
//If the element matches the ignoreSelector then we skip it
if ($(this).is(ignoreSelector)) {
return;
}
self._appendSubheaders.call(this, self, ul);
});
}
});
});
},
_setActiveElement: function(pageload) {
var self = this,
hash = window.location.hash.substring(1),
elem = self.element.find('li[data-unique="' + hash + '"]');
if (hash.length) {
// Removes highlighting from all of the list item's
self.element.find("." + self.focusClass).removeClass(self.focusClass);
// Highlights the current list item that was clicked
elem.addClass(self.focusClass);
// Triggers the click event on the currently focused TOC item
elem.click();
} else {
// Removes highlighting from all of the list item's
self.element.find("." + self.focusClass).removeClass(self.focusClass);
if (!hash.length && pageload && self.options.highlightDefault) {
// Highlights the first TOC item if no other items are highlighted
self.element.find(itemClass).first().addClass(self.focusClass);
}
}
return self;
},
// _nestElements
// -------------
// Helps create the table of contents list by appending nested list items
_nestElements: function(self, index) {
var arr, item, hashValue;
arr = $.grep(this.items, function(item) {
return item === self.text();
});
// If there is already a duplicate TOC item
if (arr.length) {
// Adds the current TOC item text and index (for slight randomization) to the internal array
this.items.push(self.text() + index);
}
// If there not a duplicate TOC item
else {
// Adds the current TOC item text to the internal array
this.items.push(self.text());
}
hashValue = this._generateHashValue(arr, self, index);
// Appends a list item HTML element to the last unordered list HTML element found within the HTML element calling the plugin
item = $("<li/>", {
// Sets a common class name to the list item
"class": itemClassName,
"data-unique": hashValue
});
if (this.options.theme !== "bootstrap3") {
item.append($("<a/>", {
"html": self.html()
}));
} else {
item.html(self.html());
}
// Adds an HTML anchor tag before the currently traversed HTML element
self.before($("<div/>", {
// Sets a name attribute on the anchor tag to the text of the currently traversed HTML element (also making sure that all whitespace is replaced with an underscore)
"name": hashValue,
"data-unique": hashValue
}));
return item;
},
// _generateHashValue
// ------------------
// Generates the hash value that will be used to refer to each item.
_generateHashValue: function(arr, self, index) {
var hashValue = "",
hashGeneratorOption = this.options.hashGenerator;
if (hashGeneratorOption === "pretty") {
// prettify the text
hashValue = self.text().toLowerCase().replace(/\s/g, "-");
// fix double hyphens
while (hashValue.indexOf("--") > -1) {
hashValue = hashValue.replace(/--/g, "-");
}
// fix colon-space instances
while (hashValue.indexOf(":-") > -1) {
hashValue = hashValue.replace(/:-/g, "-");
}
} else if (typeof hashGeneratorOption === "function") {
// call the function
hashValue = hashGeneratorOption(self.text(), self);
} else {
// compact - the default
hashValue = self.text().replace(/\s/g, "");
}
// add the index if we need to
if (arr.length) {
hashValue += "" + index;
}
// return the value
return hashValue;
},
// _appendElements
// ---------------
// Helps create the table of contents list by appending subheader elements
_appendSubheaders: function(self, ul) {
// The current element index
var index = $(this).index(self.options.selectors),
// Finds the previous header DOM element
previousHeader = $(self.options.selectors).eq(index - 1),
currentTagName = +$(this).prop("tagName").charAt(1),
previousTagName = +previousHeader.prop("tagName").charAt(1),
lastSubheader;
// If the current header DOM element is smaller than the previous header DOM element or the first subheader
if (currentTagName < previousTagName) {
// Selects the last unordered list HTML found within the HTML element calling the plugin
self.element.find(subheaderClass + "[data-tag=" + currentTagName + "]").last().append(self._nestElements($(this), index));
}
// If the current header DOM element is the same type of header(eg. h4) as the previous header DOM element
else if (currentTagName === previousTagName) {
ul.find(itemClass).last().after(self._nestElements($(this), index));
} else {
// Selects the last unordered list HTML found within the HTML element calling the plugin
ul.find(itemClass).last().
// Appends an unorderedList HTML element to the dynamic `unorderedList` variable and sets a common class name
after($("<ul/>", {
"class": subheaderClassName,
"data-tag": currentTagName
})).next(subheaderClass).
// Appends a list item HTML element to the last unordered list HTML element found within the HTML element calling the plugin
append(self._nestElements($(this), index));
}
},
// _setEventHandlers
// ----------------
// Adds jQuery event handlers to the newly generated table of contents
_setEventHandlers: function() {
// _Local variables_
// Stores the plugin context in the self variable
var self = this,
// Instantiates a new variable that will be used to hold a specific element's context
$self,
// Instantiates a new variable that will be used to determine the smoothScroll animation time duration
duration;
// Event delegation that looks for any clicks on list item elements inside of the HTML element calling the plugin
this.element.on("click.tocify", "li", function(event) {
if (self.options.history) {
window.location.hash = $(this).attr("data-unique");
}
// Removes highlighting from all of the list item's
self.element.find("." + self.focusClass).removeClass(self.focusClass);
// Highlights the current list item that was clicked
$(this).addClass(self.focusClass);
// If the showAndHide option is true
if (self.options.showAndHide) {
var elem = $('li[data-unique="' + $(this).attr("data-unique") + '"]');
self._triggerShow(elem);
}
self._scrollTo($(this));
});
// Mouseenter and Mouseleave event handlers for the list item's within the HTML element calling the plugin
this.element.find("li").on({
// Mouseenter event handler
"mouseenter.tocify": function() {
// Adds a hover CSS class to the current list item
$(this).addClass(self.hoverClass);
// Makes sure the cursor is set to the pointer icon
$(this).css("cursor", "pointer");
},
// Mouseleave event handler
"mouseleave.tocify": function() {
if (self.options.theme !== "bootstrap") {
// Removes the hover CSS class from the current list item
$(this).removeClass(self.hoverClass);
}
}
});
// only attach handler if needed (expensive in IE)
if (self.options.extendPage || self.options.highlightOnScroll || self.options.scrollHistory || self.options.showAndHideOnScroll) {
// Window scroll event handler
$(window).on("scroll.tocify", function() {
// Once all animations on the page are complete, this callback function will be called
$("html, body").promise().done(function() {
// Local variables
// Stores how far the user has scrolled
var winScrollTop = $(window).scrollTop(),
// Stores the height of the window
winHeight = $(window).height(),
// Stores the height of the document
docHeight = $(document).height(),
scrollHeight = $("body")[0].scrollHeight,
// Instantiates a variable that will be used to hold a selected HTML element
elem,
lastElem,
lastElemOffset,
currentElem;
if (self.options.extendPage) {
// If the user has scrolled to the bottom of the page and the last toc item is not focused
if ((self.webkit && winScrollTop >= scrollHeight - winHeight - self.options.extendPageOffset) || (!self.webkit && winHeight + winScrollTop > docHeight - self.options.extendPageOffset)) {
if (!$(extendPageClass).length) {
lastElem = $('div[data-unique="' + $(itemClass).last().attr("data-unique") + '"]');
if (!lastElem.length) return;
// Gets the top offset of the page header that is linked to the last toc item
lastElemOffset = lastElem.offset().top;
// Appends a div to the bottom of the page and sets the height to the difference of the window scrollTop and the last element's position top offset
$(self.options.context).append($("<div/>", {
"class": extendPageClassName,
"height": Math.abs(lastElemOffset - winScrollTop) + "px",
"data-unique": extendPageClassName
}));
if (self.extendPageScroll) {
currentElem = self.element.find('li.' + self.focusClass);
self._scrollTo($('div[data-unique="' + currentElem.attr("data-unique") + '"]'));
}
}
}
}
// The zero timeout ensures the following code is run after the scroll events
setTimeout(function() {
// _Local variables_
// Stores the distance to the closest anchor
var closestAnchorDistance = null,
// Stores the index of the closest anchor
closestAnchorIdx = null,
// Keeps a reference to all anchors
anchors = $(self.options.context).find("div[data-unique]"),
anchorText;
// Determines the index of the closest anchor
anchors.each(function(idx) {
var distance = Math.abs(($(this).next().length ? $(this).next() : $(this)).offset().top - winScrollTop - self.options.highlightOffset);
if (closestAnchorDistance == null || distance < closestAnchorDistance) {
closestAnchorDistance = distance;
closestAnchorIdx = idx;
} else {
return false;
}
});
anchorText = $(anchors[closestAnchorIdx]).attr("data-unique");
// Stores the list item HTML element that corresponds to the currently traversed anchor tag
elem = $('li[data-unique="' + anchorText + '"]');
// If the `highlightOnScroll` option is true and a next element is found
if (self.options.highlightOnScroll && elem.length) {
// Removes highlighting from all of the list item's
self.element.find("." + self.focusClass).removeClass(self.focusClass);
// Highlights the corresponding list item
elem.addClass(self.focusClass);
}
if (self.options.scrollHistory) {
if (window.location.hash !== "#" + anchorText) {
window.location.replace("#" + anchorText);
}
}
// If the `showAndHideOnScroll` option is true
if (self.options.showAndHideOnScroll && self.options.showAndHide) {
self._triggerShow(elem, true);
}
}, 0);
});
});
}
},
// Show
// ----
// Opens the current sub-header
show: function(elem, scroll) {
// Stores the plugin context in the `self` variable
var self = this,
element = elem;
// If the sub-header is not already visible
if (!elem.is(":visible")) {
// If the current element does not have any nested subheaders, is not a header, and its parent is not visible
if (!elem.find(subheaderClass).length && !elem.parent().is(headerClass) && !elem.parent().is(":visible")) {
// Sets the current element to all of the subheaders within the current header
elem = elem.parents(subheaderClass).add(elem);
}
// If the current element does not have any nested subheaders and is not a header
else if (!elem.children(subheaderClass).length && !elem.parent().is(headerClass)) {
// Sets the current element to the closest subheader
elem = elem.closest(subheaderClass);
}
//Determines what jQuery effect to use
switch (self.options.showEffect) {
//Uses `no effect`
case "none":
elem.show();
break;
//Uses the jQuery `show` special effect
case "show":
elem.show(self.options.showEffectSpeed);
break;
//Uses the jQuery `slideDown` special effect
case "slideDown":
elem.slideDown(self.options.showEffectSpeed);
break;
//Uses the jQuery `fadeIn` special effect
case "fadeIn":
elem.fadeIn(self.options.showEffectSpeed);
break;
//If none of the above options were passed, then a `jQueryUI show effect` is expected
default:
elem.show();
break;
}
}
// If the current subheader parent element is a header
if (elem.parent().is(headerClass)) {
// Hides all non-active sub-headers
self.hide($(subheaderClass).not(elem));
}
// If the current subheader parent element is not a header
else {
// Hides all non-active sub-headers
self.hide($(subheaderClass).not(elem.closest(headerClass).find(subheaderClass).not(elem.siblings())));
}
// Maintains chainablity
return self;
},
// Hide
// ----
// Closes the current sub-header
hide: function(elem) {
// Stores the plugin context in the `self` variable
var self = this;
//Determines what jQuery effect to use
switch (self.options.hideEffect) {
// Uses `no effect`
case "none":
elem.hide();
break;
// Uses the jQuery `hide` special effect
case "hide":
elem.hide(self.options.hideEffectSpeed);
break;
// Uses the jQuery `slideUp` special effect
case "slideUp":
elem.slideUp(self.options.hideEffectSpeed);
break;
// Uses the jQuery `fadeOut` special effect
case "fadeOut":
elem.fadeOut(self.options.hideEffectSpeed);
break;
// If none of the above options were passed, then a `jqueryUI hide effect` is expected
default:
elem.hide();
break;
}
// Maintains chainablity
return self;
},
// _triggerShow
// ------------
// Determines what elements get shown on scroll and click
_triggerShow: function(elem, scroll) {
var self = this;
// If the current element's parent is a header element or the next element is a nested subheader element
if (elem.parent().is(headerClass) || elem.next().is(subheaderClass)) {
// Shows the next sub-header element
self.show(elem.next(subheaderClass), scroll);
}
// If the current element's parent is a subheader element
else if (elem.parent().is(subheaderClass)) {
// Shows the parent sub-header element
self.show(elem.parent(), scroll);
}
// Maintains chainability
return self;
},
// _addCSSClasses
// --------------
// Adds CSS classes to the newly generated table of contents HTML
_addCSSClasses: function() {
// If the user wants a jqueryUI theme
if (this.options.theme === "jqueryui") {
this.focusClass = "ui-state-default";
this.hoverClass = "ui-state-hover";
//Adds the default styling to the dropdown list
this.element.addClass("ui-widget").find(".toc-title").addClass("ui-widget-header").end().find("li").addClass("ui-widget-content");
}
// If the user wants a twitterBootstrap theme
else if (this.options.theme === "bootstrap") {
this.element.find(headerClass + "," + subheaderClass).addClass("nav nav-list");
this.focusClass = "active";
}
// If the user wants a twitterBootstrap theme
else if (this.options.theme === "bootstrap3") {
this.element.find(headerClass + "," + subheaderClass).addClass("list-group");
this.element.find(itemClass).addClass("list-group-item");
this.focusClass = "active";
}
// If a user does not want a prebuilt theme
else {
// Adds more neutral classes (instead of jqueryui)
this.focusClass = tocFocusClassName;
this.hoverClass = tocHoverClassName;
}
//Maintains chainability
return this;
},
// setOption
// ---------
// Sets a single Tocify option after the plugin is invoked
setOption: function() {
// Calls the jQueryUI Widget Factory setOption method
$.Widget.prototype._setOption.apply(this, arguments);
},
// setOptions
// ----------
// Sets a single or multiple Tocify options after the plugin is invoked
setOptions: function() {
// Calls the jQueryUI Widget Factory setOptions method
$.Widget.prototype._setOptions.apply(this, arguments);
},
// _scrollTo
// ---------
// Scrolls to a specific element
_scrollTo: function(elem) {
var self = this,
duration = self.options.smoothScroll || 0,
scrollTo = self.options.scrollTo,
currentDiv = $('div[data-unique="' + elem.attr("data-unique") + '"]');
if (!currentDiv.length) {
return self;
}
// Once all animations on the page are complete, this callback function will be called
$("html, body").promise().done(function() {
// Animates the html and body element scrolltops
$("html, body").animate({
// Sets the jQuery `scrollTop` to the top offset of the HTML div tag that matches the current list item's `data-unique` tag
"scrollTop": currentDiv.offset().top - ($.isFunction(scrollTo) ? scrollTo.call() : scrollTo) + "px"
}, {
// Sets the smoothScroll animation time duration to the smoothScrollSpeed option
"duration": duration
});
});
// Maintains chainability
return self;
}
});
})); //end of plugin
</script>
<script>
/**
* jQuery Plugin: Sticky Tabs
*
* @author Aidan Lister <aidan@php.net>
* adapted by Ruben Arslan to activate parent tabs too
* http://www.aidanlister.com/2014/03/persisting-the-tab-state-in-bootstrap/
*/
(function($) {
"use strict";
$.fn.rmarkdownStickyTabs = function() {
var context = this;
// Show the tab corresponding with the hash in the URL, or the first tab
var showStuffFromHash = function() {
var hash = window.location.hash;
var selector = hash ? 'a[href="' + hash + '"]' : 'li.active > a';
var $selector = $(selector, context);
if($selector.data('toggle') === "tab") {
$selector.tab('show');
// walk up the ancestors of this element, show any hidden tabs
$selector.parents('.section.tabset').each(function(i, elm) {
var link = $('a[href="#' + $(elm).attr('id') + '"]');
if(link.data('toggle') === "tab") {
link.tab("show");
}
});
}
};
// Set the correct tab when the page loads
showStuffFromHash(context);
// Set the correct tab when a user uses their back/forward button
$(window).on('hashchange', function() {
showStuffFromHash(context);
});
// Change the URL when tabs are clicked
$('a', context).on('click', function(e) {
history.pushState(null, null, this.href);
showStuffFromHash(context);
});
return this;
};
}(jQuery));
window.buildTabsets = function(tocID) {
// build a tabset from a section div with the .tabset class
function buildTabset(tabset) {
// check for fade and pills options
var fade = tabset.hasClass("tabset-fade");
var pills = tabset.hasClass("tabset-pills");
var navClass = pills ? "nav-pills" : "nav-tabs";
// determine the heading level of the tabset and tabs
var match = tabset.attr('class').match(/level(\d) /);
if (match === null)
return;
var tabsetLevel = Number(match[1]);
var tabLevel = tabsetLevel + 1;
// find all subheadings immediately below
var tabs = tabset.find("div.section.level" + tabLevel);
if (!tabs.length)
return;
// create tablist and tab-content elements
var tabList = $('<ul class="nav ' + navClass + '" role="tablist"></ul>');
$(tabs[0]).before(tabList);
var tabContent = $('<div class="tab-content"></div>');
$(tabs[0]).before(tabContent);
// build the tabset
var activeTab = 0;
tabs.each(function(i) {
// get the tab div
var tab = $(tabs[i]);
// get the id then sanitize it for use with bootstrap tabs
var id = tab.attr('id');
// see if this is marked as the active tab
if (tab.hasClass('active'))
activeTab = i;
// remove any table of contents entries associated with
// this ID (since we'll be removing the heading element)
$("div#" + tocID + " li a[href='#" + id + "']").parent().remove();
// sanitize the id for use with bootstrap tabs
id = id.replace(/[.\/?&!#<>]/g, '').replace(/\s/g, '_');
tab.attr('id', id);
// get the heading element within it, grab it's text, then remove it
var heading = tab.find('h' + tabLevel + ':first');
var headingText = heading.html();
heading.remove();
// build and append the tab list item
var a = $('<a role="tab" data-toggle="tab">' + headingText + '</a>');
a.attr('href', '#' + id);
a.attr('aria-controls', id);
var li = $('<li role="presentation"></li>');
li.append(a);
tabList.append(li);
// set it's attributes
tab.attr('role', 'tabpanel');
tab.addClass('tab-pane');
tab.addClass('tabbed-pane');
if (fade)
tab.addClass('fade');
// move it into the tab content div
tab.detach().appendTo(tabContent);
});
// set active tab
$(tabList.children('li')[activeTab]).addClass('active');
var active = $(tabContent.children('div.section')[activeTab]);
active.addClass('active');
if (fade)
active.addClass('in');
if (tabset.hasClass("tabset-sticky"))
tabset.rmarkdownStickyTabs();
}
// convert section divs with the .tabset class to tabsets
var tabsets = $("div.section.tabset");
tabsets.each(function(i) {
buildTabset($(tabsets[i]));
});
};
</script>
<script>
window.initializeCodeFolding = function(show) {
// handlers for show-all and hide all
$("#rmd-show-all-code").click(function() {
$('div.r-code-collapse').each(function() {
$(this).collapse('show');
});
});
$("#rmd-hide-all-code").click(function() {
$('div.r-code-collapse').each(function() {
$(this).collapse('hide');
});
});
// index for unique code element ids
var currentIndex = 1;
// select all R code blocks
var rCodeBlocks = $('pre.r, pre.python, pre.bash, pre.sql, pre.cpp, pre.stan, pre.julia, pre.foldable');
rCodeBlocks.each(function() {
// skip if the block has fold-none class
if ($(this).hasClass('fold-none')) return;
// create a collapsable div to wrap the code in
var div = $('<div class="collapse r-code-collapse"></div>');
var showThis = (show || $(this).hasClass('fold-show')) && !$(this).hasClass('fold-hide');
var id = 'rcode-643E0F36' + currentIndex++;
div.attr('id', id);
$(this).before(div);
$(this).detach().appendTo(div);
// add a show code button right above
var showCodeText = $('<span>' + (showThis ? 'Hide' : 'Code') + '</span>');
var showCodeButton = $('<button type="button" class="btn btn-default btn-xs btn-secondary btn-sm code-folding-btn pull-right float-right"></button>');
showCodeButton.append(showCodeText);
showCodeButton
.attr('data-toggle', 'collapse')
.attr('data-bs-toggle', 'collapse') // BS5
.attr('data-target', '#' + id)
.attr('data-bs-target', '#' + id) // BS5
.attr('aria-expanded', showThis)
.attr('aria-controls', id);
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<h1 class="title toc-ignore">Build a regression model: prepare and
visualize data</h1>
</div>
<div id="linear-regression-for-pumpkins---lesson-2" class="section level2">
<h2><strong>Linear Regression for Pumpkins - Lesson 2</strong></h2>
<div id="introduction" class="section level4">
<h4>Introduction</h4>
<p>Now that you are set up with the tools you need to start tackling
machine learning model building with Tidymodels and the Tidyverse, you
are ready to start asking questions of your data. As you work with data
and apply ML solutions, it’s very important to understand how to ask the
right question to properly unlock the potentials of your dataset.</p>
<p>In this lesson, you will learn:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>How to prepare your data for model-building.</p></li>
<li><p>How to use <code>ggplot2</code> for data visualization.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The question you need answered will determine what type of ML
algorithms you will leverage. And the quality of the answer you get back
will be heavily dependent on the nature of your data.</p>
<p>Let’s see this by working through a practical exercise.</p>
<div class="figure">
<img src="data:image/jpeg;base64,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
<p class="caption">Artwork by @allison_horst</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div id="importing-pumpkins-data-and-summoning-the-tidyverse" class="section level2">
<h2>1. Importing pumpkins data and summoning the Tidyverse</h2>
<p>We’ll require the following packages to slice and dice this
lesson:</p>
<ul>
<li><code>tidyverse</code>: The <a href="https://www.tidyverse.org/">tidyverse</a> is a <a href="https://www.tidyverse.org/packages">collection of R packages</a>
designed to makes data science faster, easier and more fun!</li>
</ul>
<p>You can have them installed as:</p>
<p><code>install.packages(c(&quot;tidyverse&quot;))</code></p>
<p>The script below checks whether you have the packages required to
complete this module and installs them for you in case they are
missing.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb1"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb1-1"><a href="#cb1-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="cf">if</span> (<span class="sc">!</span><span class="fu">require</span>(<span class="st">&quot;pacman&quot;</span>)) <span class="fu">install.packages</span>(<span class="st">&quot;pacman&quot;</span>)</span>
<span id="cb1-2"><a href="#cb1-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>pacman<span class="sc">::</span><span class="fu">p_load</span>(tidyverse)</span></code></pre></div>
<p>Now, let’s fire up some packages and load the <a href="https://github.com/microsoft/ML-For-Beginners/blob/main/2-Regression/data/US-pumpkins.csv">data</a>
provided for this lesson!</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb2"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb2-1"><a href="#cb2-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># Load the core Tidyverse packages</span></span>
<span id="cb2-2"><a href="#cb2-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">library</span>(tidyverse)</span>
<span id="cb2-3"><a href="#cb2-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb2-4"><a href="#cb2-4" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># Import the pumpkins data</span></span>
<span id="cb2-5"><a href="#cb2-5" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>pumpkins <span class="ot">&lt;-</span> <span class="fu">read_csv</span>(<span class="at">file =</span> <span class="st">&quot;https://raw.githubusercontent.com/microsoft/ML-For-Beginners/main/2-Regression/data/US-pumpkins.csv&quot;</span>)</span>
<span id="cb2-6"><a href="#cb2-6" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb2-7"><a href="#cb2-7" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb2-8"><a href="#cb2-8" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># Get a glimpse and dimensions of the data</span></span>
<span id="cb2-9"><a href="#cb2-9" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">glimpse</span>(pumpkins)</span></code></pre></div>
<pre><code>## Rows: 1,757
## Columns: 26
## $ `City Name` &lt;chr&gt; &quot;BALTIMORE&quot;, &quot;BALTIMORE&quot;, &quot;BALTIMORE&quot;, &quot;BALTIMORE&quot;, ~
## $ Type &lt;chr&gt; NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, ~
## $ Package &lt;chr&gt; &quot;24 inch bins&quot;, &quot;24 inch bins&quot;, &quot;24 inch bins&quot;, &quot;24 ~
## $ Variety &lt;chr&gt; NA, NA, &quot;HOWDEN TYPE&quot;, &quot;HOWDEN TYPE&quot;, &quot;HOWDEN TYPE&quot;,~
## $ `Sub Variety` &lt;chr&gt; NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, ~
## $ Grade &lt;lgl&gt; NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, ~
## $ Date &lt;chr&gt; &quot;4/29/17&quot;, &quot;5/6/17&quot;, &quot;9/24/16&quot;, &quot;9/24/16&quot;, &quot;11/5/16&quot;~
## $ `Low Price` &lt;dbl&gt; 270, 270, 160, 160, 90, 90, 160, 160, 160, 160, 160,~
## $ `High Price` &lt;dbl&gt; 280, 280, 160, 160, 100, 100, 170, 160, 170, 160, 17~
## $ `Mostly Low` &lt;dbl&gt; 270, 270, 160, 160, 90, 90, 160, 160, 160, 160, 160,~
## $ `Mostly High` &lt;dbl&gt; 280, 280, 160, 160, 100, 100, 170, 160, 170, 160, 17~
## $ Origin &lt;chr&gt; &quot;MARYLAND&quot;, &quot;MARYLAND&quot;, &quot;DELAWARE&quot;, &quot;VIRGINIA&quot;, &quot;MAR~
## $ `Origin District` &lt;chr&gt; NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, ~
## $ `Item Size` &lt;chr&gt; &quot;lge&quot;, &quot;lge&quot;, &quot;med&quot;, &quot;med&quot;, &quot;lge&quot;, &quot;lge&quot;, &quot;med&quot;, &quot;lg~
## $ Color &lt;chr&gt; NA, NA, &quot;ORANGE&quot;, &quot;ORANGE&quot;, &quot;ORANGE&quot;, &quot;ORANGE&quot;, &quot;ORA~
## $ Environment &lt;lgl&gt; NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, ~
## $ `Unit of Sale` &lt;chr&gt; NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, ~
## $ Quality &lt;lgl&gt; NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, ~
## $ Condition &lt;lgl&gt; NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, ~
## $ Appearance &lt;lgl&gt; NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, ~
## $ Storage &lt;lgl&gt; NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, ~
## $ Crop &lt;lgl&gt; NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, ~
## $ Repack &lt;chr&gt; &quot;E&quot;, &quot;E&quot;, &quot;N&quot;, &quot;N&quot;, &quot;N&quot;, &quot;N&quot;, &quot;N&quot;, &quot;N&quot;, &quot;N&quot;, &quot;N&quot;, &quot;N~
## $ `Trans Mode` &lt;lgl&gt; NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, ~
## $ ...25 &lt;lgl&gt; NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, ~
## $ ...26 &lt;chr&gt; NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, ~</code></pre>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb4"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb4-1"><a href="#cb4-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># Print the first 50 rows of the data set</span></span>
<span id="cb4-2"><a href="#cb4-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>pumpkins <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb4-3"><a href="#cb4-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">slice_head</span>(<span class="at">n =</span><span class="dv">50</span>)</span></code></pre></div>
<div data-pagedtable="false">
<script data-pagedtable-source type="application/json">
{"columns":[{"label":["City Name"],"name":[1],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]},{"label":["Type"],"name":[2],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]},{"label":["Package"],"name":[3],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]},{"label":["Variety"],"name":[4],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]},{"label":["Sub Variety"],"name":[5],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]},{"label":["Grade"],"name":[6],"type":["lgl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Date"],"name":[7],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]},{"label":["Low Price"],"name":[8],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["High Price"],"name":[9],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Mostly Low"],"name":[10],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Mostly High"],"name":[11],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Origin"],"name":[12],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]},{"label":["Origin District"],"name":[13],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]},{"label":["Item Size"],"name":[14],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]},{"label":["Color"],"name":[15],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]},{"label":["Environment"],"name":[16],"type":["lgl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Unit of Sale"],"name":[17],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]},{"label":["Quality"],"name":[18],"type":["lgl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Condition"],"name":[19],"type":["lgl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Appearance"],"name":[20],"type":["lgl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Storage"],"name":[21],"type":["lgl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Crop"],"name":[22],"type":["lgl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Repack"],"name":[23],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]},{"label":["Trans Mode"],"name":[24],"type":["lgl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["...25"],"name":[25],"type":["lgl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["...26"],"name":[26],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]}],"data":[{"1":"BALTIMORE","2":"NA","3":"24 inch bins","4":"NA","5":"NA","6":"NA","7":"4/29/17","8":"270","9":"280","10":"270","11":"280","12":"MARYLAND","13":"NA","14":"lge","15":"NA","16":"NA","17":"NA","18":"NA","19":"NA","20":"NA","21":"NA","22":"NA","23":"E","24":"NA","25":"NA","26":"NA"},{"1":"BALTIMORE","2":"NA","3":"24 inch bins","4":"NA","5":"NA","6":"NA","7":"5/6/17","8":"270","9":"280","10":"270","11":"280","12":"MARYLAND","13":"NA","14":"lge","15":"NA","16":"NA","17":"NA","18":"NA","19":"NA","20":"NA","21":"NA","22":"NA","23":"E","24":"NA","25":"NA","26":"NA"},{"1":"BALTIMORE","2":"NA","3":"24 inch bins","4":"HOWDEN TYPE","5":"NA","6":"NA","7":"9/24/16","8":"160","9":"160","10":"160","11":"160","12":"DELAWARE","13":"NA","14":"med","15":"ORANGE","16":"NA","17":"NA","18":"NA","19":"NA","20":"NA","21":"NA","22":"NA","23":"N","24":"NA","25":"NA","26":"NA"},{"1":"BALTIMORE","2":"NA","3":"24 inch bins","4":"HOWDEN TYPE","5":"NA","6":"NA","7":"9/24/16","8":"160","9":"160","10":"160","11":"160","12":"VIRGINIA","13":"NA","14":"med","15":"ORANGE","16":"NA","17":"NA","18":"NA","19":"NA","20":"NA","21":"NA","22":"NA","23":"N","24":"NA","25":"NA","26":"NA"},{"1":"BALTIMORE","2":"NA","3":"24 inch bins","4":"HOWDEN TYPE","5":"NA","6":"NA","7":"11/5/16","8":"90","9":"100","10":"90","11":"100","12":"MARYLAND","13":"NA","14":"lge","15":"ORANGE","16":"NA","17":"NA","18":"NA","19":"NA","20":"NA","21":"NA","22":"NA","23":"N","24":"NA","25":"NA","26":"NA"},{"1":"BALTIMORE","2":"NA","3":"24 inch bins","4":"HOWDEN TYPE","5":"NA","6":"NA","7":"11/12/16","8":"90","9":"100","10":"90","11":"100","12":"MARYLAND","13":"NA","14":"lge","15":"ORANGE","16":"NA","17":"NA","18":"NA","19":"NA","20":"NA","21":"NA","22":"NA","23":"N","24":"NA","25":"NA","26":"NA"},{"1":"BALTIMORE","2":"NA","3":"36 inch bins","4":"HOWDEN TYPE","5":"NA","6":"NA","7":"9/24/16","8":"160","9":"170","10":"160","11":"170","12":"MARYLAND","13":"NA","14":"med","15":"ORANGE","16":"NA","17":"NA","18":"NA","19":"NA","20":"NA","21":"NA","22":"NA","23":"N","24":"NA","25":"NA","26":"NA"},{"1":"BALTIMORE","2":"NA","3":"36 inch bins","4":"HOWDEN TYPE","5":"NA","6":"NA","7":"9/24/16","8":"160","9":"160","10":"160","11":"160","12":"PENNSYLVANIA","13":"NA","14":"lge","15":"ORANGE","16":"NA","17":"NA","18":"NA","19":"NA","20":"NA","21":"NA","22":"NA","23":"N","
</script>
</div>
<p>A quick <code>glimpse()</code> immediately shows that there are
blanks and a mix of strings (<code>chr</code>) and numeric data
(<code>dbl</code>). The <code>Date</code> is of type character and
there’s also a strange column called <code>Package</code> where the data
is a mix between <code>sacks</code>, <code>bins</code> and other values.
The data, in fact, is a bit of a mess 😤.</p>
<p>In fact, it is not very common to be gifted a dataset that is
completely ready to use to create a ML model out of the box. But worry
not, in this lesson, you will learn how to prepare a raw dataset using
standard R libraries 🧑‍🔧. You will also learn various techniques to
visualize the data.📈📊</p>
<blockquote>
<p>A refresher: The pipe operator (<code>%&gt;%</code>) performs
operations in logical sequence by passing an object forward into a
function or call expression. You can think of the pipe operator as
saying “and then” in your code.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<div id="check-for-missing-data" class="section level2">
<h2>2. Check for missing data</h2>
<p>One of the most common issues data scientists need to deal with is
incomplete or missing data. R represents missing, or unknown values,
with special sentinel value: <code>NA</code> (Not Available).</p>
<p>So how would we know that the data frame contains missing values?</p>
<ul>
<li>One straight forward way would be to use the base R function
<code>anyNA</code> which returns the logical objects <code>TRUE</code>
or <code>FALSE</code></li>
</ul>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb5"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb5-1"><a href="#cb5-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>pumpkins <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb5-2"><a href="#cb5-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">anyNA</span>()</span></code></pre></div>
<pre><code>## [1] TRUE</code></pre>
<p>Great, there seems to be some missing data! That’s a good place to
start.</p>
<ul>
<li>Another way would be to use the function <code>is.na()</code> that
indicates which individual column elements are missing with a logical
<code>TRUE</code>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb7"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb7-1"><a href="#cb7-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>pumpkins <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb7-2"><a href="#cb7-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">is.na</span>() <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb7-3"><a href="#cb7-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">head</span>(<span class="at">n =</span> <span class="dv">7</span>)</span></code></pre></div>
<pre><code>## City Name Type Package Variety Sub Variety Grade Date Low Price
## [1,] FALSE TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE FALSE
## [2,] FALSE TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE FALSE
## [3,] FALSE TRUE FALSE FALSE TRUE TRUE FALSE FALSE
## [4,] FALSE TRUE FALSE FALSE TRUE TRUE FALSE FALSE
## [5,] FALSE TRUE FALSE FALSE TRUE TRUE FALSE FALSE
## [6,] FALSE TRUE FALSE FALSE TRUE TRUE FALSE FALSE
## [7,] FALSE TRUE FALSE FALSE TRUE TRUE FALSE FALSE
## High Price Mostly Low Mostly High Origin Origin District Item Size Color
## [1,] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE TRUE FALSE TRUE
## [2,] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE TRUE FALSE TRUE
## [3,] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE TRUE FALSE FALSE
## [4,] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE TRUE FALSE FALSE
## [5,] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE TRUE FALSE FALSE
## [6,] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE TRUE FALSE FALSE
## [7,] FALSE FALSE FALSE FALSE TRUE FALSE FALSE
## Environment Unit of Sale Quality Condition Appearance Storage Crop Repack
## [1,] TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE
## [2,] TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE
## [3,] TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE
## [4,] TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE
## [5,] TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE
## [6,] TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE
## [7,] TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE
## Trans Mode ...25 ...26
## [1,] TRUE TRUE TRUE
## [2,] TRUE TRUE TRUE
## [3,] TRUE TRUE TRUE
## [4,] TRUE TRUE TRUE
## [5,] TRUE TRUE TRUE
## [6,] TRUE TRUE TRUE
## [7,] TRUE TRUE TRUE</code></pre>
<p>Okay, got the job done but with a large data frame such as this, it
would be inefficient and practically impossible to review all of the
rows and columns individually😴.</p>
<ul>
<li>A more intuitive way would be to calculate the sum of the missing
values for each column:</li>
</ul>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb9"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb9-1"><a href="#cb9-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>pumpkins <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb9-2"><a href="#cb9-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">is.na</span>() <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb9-3"><a href="#cb9-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">colSums</span>()</span></code></pre></div>
<pre><code>## City Name Type Package Variety Sub Variety
## 0 1712 0 5 1461
## Grade Date Low Price High Price Mostly Low
## 1757 0 0 0 103
## Mostly High Origin Origin District Item Size Color
## 103 3 1626 279 616
## Environment Unit of Sale Quality Condition Appearance
## 1757 1595 1757 1757 1757
## Storage Crop Repack Trans Mode ...25
## 1757 1757 0 1757 1757
## ...26
## 1654</code></pre>
<p>Much better! There is missing data, but maybe it won’t matter for the
task at hand. Let’s see what further analysis brings forth.</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Along with the awesome sets of packages and functions, R has a very
good documentation. For instance, use <code>help(colSums)</code> or
<code>?colSums</code> to find out more about the function.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<div id="dplyr-a-grammar-of-data-manipulation" class="section level2">
<h2>3. Dplyr: A Grammar of Data Manipulation</h2>
<div class="figure">
<img src="data:image/png;base64,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
<p class="caption">Artwork by @allison_horst</p>
</div>
<p><a href="https://dplyr.tidyverse.org/"><code>dplyr</code></a>, a
package in the Tidyverse, is a grammar of data manipulation that
provides a consistent set of verbs that help you solve the most common
data manipulation challenges. In this section, we’ll explore some of
dplyr’s verbs!</p>
<div id="dplyrselect" class="section level4">
<h4>dplyr::select()</h4>
<p><code>select()</code> is a function in the package <code>dplyr</code>
which helps you pick columns to keep or exclude.</p>
<p>To make your data frame easier to work with, drop several of its
columns, using <code>select()</code>, keeping only the columns you
need.</p>
<p>For instance, in this exercise, our analysis will involve the columns
<code>Package</code>, <code>Low Price</code>, <code>High Price</code>
and <code>Date</code>. Let’s select these columns.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb11"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb11-1"><a href="#cb11-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># Select desired columns</span></span>
<span id="cb11-2"><a href="#cb11-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>pumpkins <span class="ot">&lt;-</span> pumpkins <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb11-3"><a href="#cb11-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">select</span>(Package, <span class="st">`</span><span class="at">Low Price</span><span class="st">`</span>, <span class="st">`</span><span class="at">High Price</span><span class="st">`</span>, Date)</span>
<span id="cb11-4"><a href="#cb11-4" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb11-5"><a href="#cb11-5" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb11-6"><a href="#cb11-6" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># Print data set</span></span>
<span id="cb11-7"><a href="#cb11-7" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>pumpkins <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb11-8"><a href="#cb11-8" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">slice_head</span>(<span class="at">n =</span> <span class="dv">5</span>)</span></code></pre></div>
<div data-pagedtable="false">
<script data-pagedtable-source type="application/json">
{"columns":[{"label":["Package"],"name":[1],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]},{"label":["Low Price"],"name":[2],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["High Price"],"name":[3],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Date"],"name":[4],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]}],"data":[{"1":"24 inch bins","2":"270","3":"280","4":"4/29/17"},{"1":"24 inch bins","2":"270","3":"280","4":"5/6/17"},{"1":"24 inch bins","2":"160","3":"160","4":"9/24/16"},{"1":"24 inch bins","2":"160","3":"160","4":"9/24/16"},{"1":"24 inch bins","2":"90","3":"100","4":"11/5/16"}],"options":{"columns":{"min":{},"max":[10]},"rows":{"min":[10],"max":[10]},"pages":{}}}
</script>
</div>
</div>
<div id="dplyrmutate" class="section level4">
<h4>dplyr::mutate()</h4>
<p><code>mutate()</code> is a function in the package <code>dplyr</code>
which helps you create or modify columns, while keeping the existing
columns.</p>
<p>The general structure of mutate is:</p>
<p><code>data %&gt;% mutate(new_column_name = what_it_contains)</code></p>
<p>Let’s take <code>mutate</code> out for a spin using the
<code>Date</code> column by doing the following operations:</p>
<ol style="list-style-type: decimal">
<li><p>Convert the dates (currently of type character) to a month format
(these are US dates, so the format is <code>MM/DD/YYYY</code>).</p></li>
<li><p>Extract the month from the dates to a new column.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>In R, the package <a href="https://lubridate.tidyverse.org/">lubridate</a> makes it easier to
work with Date-time data. So, let’s use <code>dplyr::mutate()</code>,
<code>lubridate::mdy()</code>, <code>lubridate::month()</code> and see
how to achieve the above objectives. We can drop the Date column since
we won’t be needing it again in subsequent operations.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb12"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb12-1"><a href="#cb12-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># Load lubridate</span></span>
<span id="cb12-2"><a href="#cb12-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">library</span>(lubridate)</span>
<span id="cb12-3"><a href="#cb12-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb12-4"><a href="#cb12-4" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>pumpkins <span class="ot">&lt;-</span> pumpkins <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb12-5"><a href="#cb12-5" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="co"># Convert the Date column to a date object</span></span>
<span id="cb12-6"><a href="#cb12-6" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">mutate</span>(<span class="at">Date =</span> <span class="fu">mdy</span>(Date)) <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb12-7"><a href="#cb12-7" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="co"># Extract month from Date</span></span>
<span id="cb12-8"><a href="#cb12-8" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">mutate</span>(<span class="at">Month =</span> <span class="fu">month</span>(Date)) <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb12-9"><a href="#cb12-9" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="co"># Drop Date column</span></span>
<span id="cb12-10"><a href="#cb12-10" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">select</span>(<span class="sc">-</span>Date)</span>
<span id="cb12-11"><a href="#cb12-11" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb12-12"><a href="#cb12-12" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># View the first few rows</span></span>
<span id="cb12-13"><a href="#cb12-13" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>pumpkins <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb12-14"><a href="#cb12-14" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">slice_head</span>(<span class="at">n =</span> <span class="dv">7</span>)</span></code></pre></div>
<div data-pagedtable="false">
<script data-pagedtable-source type="application/json">
{"columns":[{"label":["Package"],"name":[1],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]},{"label":["Low Price"],"name":[2],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["High Price"],"name":[3],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Month"],"name":[4],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]}],"data":[{"1":"24 inch bins","2":"270","3":"280","4":"4"},{"1":"24 inch bins","2":"270","3":"280","4":"5"},{"1":"24 inch bins","2":"160","3":"160","4":"9"},{"1":"24 inch bins","2":"160","3":"160","4":"9"},{"1":"24 inch bins","2":"90","3":"100","4":"11"},{"1":"24 inch bins","2":"90","3":"100","4":"11"},{"1":"36 inch bins","2":"160","3":"170","4":"9"}],"options":{"columns":{"min":{},"max":[10]},"rows":{"min":[10],"max":[10]},"pages":{}}}
</script>
</div>
<p>Woohoo! 🤩</p>
<p>Next, let’s create a new column <code>Price</code>, which represents
the average price of a pumpkin. Now, let’s take the average of the
<code>Low Price</code> and <code>High Price</code> columns to populate
the new Price column.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb13"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb13-1"><a href="#cb13-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># Create a new column Price</span></span>
<span id="cb13-2"><a href="#cb13-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>pumpkins <span class="ot">&lt;-</span> pumpkins <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb13-3"><a href="#cb13-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">mutate</span>(<span class="at">Price =</span> (<span class="st">`</span><span class="at">Low Price</span><span class="st">`</span> <span class="sc">+</span> <span class="st">`</span><span class="at">High Price</span><span class="st">`</span>)<span class="sc">/</span><span class="dv">2</span>)</span>
<span id="cb13-4"><a href="#cb13-4" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb13-5"><a href="#cb13-5" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># View the first few rows of the data</span></span>
<span id="cb13-6"><a href="#cb13-6" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>pumpkins <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb13-7"><a href="#cb13-7" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">slice_head</span>(<span class="at">n =</span> <span class="dv">5</span>)</span></code></pre></div>
<div data-pagedtable="false">
<script data-pagedtable-source type="application/json">
{"columns":[{"label":["Package"],"name":[1],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]},{"label":["Low Price"],"name":[2],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["High Price"],"name":[3],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Month"],"name":[4],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Price"],"name":[5],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]}],"data":[{"1":"24 inch bins","2":"270","3":"280","4":"4","5":"275"},{"1":"24 inch bins","2":"270","3":"280","4":"5","5":"275"},{"1":"24 inch bins","2":"160","3":"160","4":"9","5":"160"},{"1":"24 inch bins","2":"160","3":"160","4":"9","5":"160"},{"1":"24 inch bins","2":"90","3":"100","4":"11","5":"95"}],"options":{"columns":{"min":{},"max":[10]},"rows":{"min":[10],"max":[10]},"pages":{}}}
</script>
</div>
<p>Yeees!💪</p>
<p>“But wait!”, you’ll say after skimming through the whole data set
with <code>View(pumpkins)</code>, “There’s something odd here!”🤔</p>
<p>If you look at the <code>Package</code> column, pumpkins are sold in
many different configurations. Some are sold in
<code>1 1/9 bushel</code> measures, and some in <code>1/2 bushel</code>
measures, some per pumpkin, some per pound, and some in big boxes with
varying widths.</p>
<p>Let’s verify this:</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb14"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb14-1"><a href="#cb14-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># Verify the distinct observations in Package column</span></span>
<span id="cb14-2"><a href="#cb14-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>pumpkins <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb14-3"><a href="#cb14-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">distinct</span>(Package)</span></code></pre></div>
<div data-pagedtable="false">
<script data-pagedtable-source type="application/json">
{"columns":[{"label":["Package"],"name":[1],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]}],"data":[{"1":"24 inch bins"},{"1":"36 inch bins"},{"1":"50 lb sacks"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons"},{"1":"1/2 bushel cartons"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel crates"},{"1":"bushel cartons"},{"1":"bins"},{"1":"35 lb cartons"},{"1":"each"},{"1":"20 lb cartons"},{"1":"50 lb cartons"},{"1":"40 lb cartons"},{"1":"bushel baskets"},{"1":"22 lb cartons"}],"options":{"columns":{"min":{},"max":[10]},"rows":{"min":[10],"max":[10]},"pages":{}}}
</script>
</div>
<p>Amazing!👏</p>
<p>Pumpkins seem to be very hard to weigh consistently, so let’s filter
them by selecting only pumpkins with the string <em>bushel</em> in the
<code>Package</code> column and put this in a new data frame
<code>new_pumpkins</code>.</p>
</div>
<div id="dplyrfilter-and-stringrstr_detect" class="section level4">
<h4>dplyr::filter() and stringr::str_detect()</h4>
<p><a href="https://dplyr.tidyverse.org/reference/filter.html"><code>dplyr::filter()</code></a>:
creates a subset of the data only containing <strong>rows</strong> that
satisfy your conditions, in this case, pumpkins with the string
<em>bushel</em> in the <code>Package</code> column.</p>
<p><a href="https://stringr.tidyverse.org/reference/str_detect.html">stringr::str_detect()</a>:
detects the presence or absence of a pattern in a string.</p>
<p>The <a href="https://github.com/tidyverse/stringr"><code>stringr</code></a>
package provides simple functions for common string operations.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb15"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb15-1"><a href="#cb15-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># Retain only pumpkins with &quot;bushel&quot;</span></span>
<span id="cb15-2"><a href="#cb15-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>new_pumpkins <span class="ot">&lt;-</span> pumpkins <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb15-3"><a href="#cb15-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">filter</span>(<span class="fu">str_detect</span>(Package, <span class="st">&quot;bushel&quot;</span>))</span>
<span id="cb15-4"><a href="#cb15-4" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb15-5"><a href="#cb15-5" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># Get the dimensions of the new data</span></span>
<span id="cb15-6"><a href="#cb15-6" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">dim</span>(new_pumpkins)</span></code></pre></div>
<pre><code>## [1] 415 5</code></pre>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb17"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb17-1"><a href="#cb17-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># View a few rows of the new data</span></span>
<span id="cb17-2"><a href="#cb17-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>new_pumpkins <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb17-3"><a href="#cb17-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">slice_head</span>(<span class="at">n =</span> <span class="dv">5</span>)</span></code></pre></div>
<div data-pagedtable="false">
<script data-pagedtable-source type="application/json">
{"columns":[{"label":["Package"],"name":[1],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]},{"label":["Low Price"],"name":[2],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["High Price"],"name":[3],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Month"],"name":[4],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Price"],"name":[5],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]}],"data":[{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"15","3":"15","4":"9","5":"15"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"18","3":"18","4":"9","5":"18"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"18","3":"18","4":"10","5":"18"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"17","3":"17","4":"10","5":"17"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"15","3":"15","4":"10","5":"15"}],"options":{"columns":{"min":{},"max":[10]},"rows":{"min":[10],"max":[10]},"pages":{}}}
</script>
</div>
<p>You can see that we have narrowed down to 415 or so rows of data
containing pumpkins by the bushel.🤩</p>
</div>
<div id="dplyrcase_when" class="section level4">
<h4>dplyr::case_when()</h4>
<p><strong>But wait! There’s one more thing to do</strong></p>
<p>Did you notice that the bushel amount varies per row? You need to
normalize the pricing so that you show the pricing per bushel, not per 1
1/9 or 1/2 bushel. Time to do some math to standardize it.</p>
<p>We’ll use the function <a href="https://dplyr.tidyverse.org/reference/case_when.html"><code>case_when()</code></a>
to <em>mutate</em> the Price column depending on some conditions.
<code>case_when</code> allows you to vectorise multiple
<code>if_else()</code>statements.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb18"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb18-1"><a href="#cb18-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># Convert the price if the Package contains fractional bushel values</span></span>
<span id="cb18-2"><a href="#cb18-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>new_pumpkins <span class="ot">&lt;-</span> new_pumpkins <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb18-3"><a href="#cb18-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">mutate</span>(<span class="at">Price =</span> <span class="fu">case_when</span>(</span>
<span id="cb18-4"><a href="#cb18-4" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">str_detect</span>(Package, <span class="st">&quot;1 1/9&quot;</span>) <span class="sc">~</span> Price<span class="sc">/</span>(<span class="dv">1</span> <span class="sc">+</span> <span class="dv">1</span><span class="sc">/</span><span class="dv">9</span>),</span>
<span id="cb18-5"><a href="#cb18-5" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">str_detect</span>(Package, <span class="st">&quot;1/2&quot;</span>) <span class="sc">~</span> Price<span class="sc">/</span>(<span class="dv">1</span><span class="sc">/</span><span class="dv">2</span>),</span>
<span id="cb18-6"><a href="#cb18-6" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="cn">TRUE</span> <span class="sc">~</span> Price))</span>
<span id="cb18-7"><a href="#cb18-7" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb18-8"><a href="#cb18-8" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># View the first few rows of the data</span></span>
<span id="cb18-9"><a href="#cb18-9" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>new_pumpkins <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb18-10"><a href="#cb18-10" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">slice_head</span>(<span class="at">n =</span> <span class="dv">30</span>)</span></code></pre></div>
<div data-pagedtable="false">
<script data-pagedtable-source type="application/json">
{"columns":[{"label":["Package"],"name":[1],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]},{"label":["Low Price"],"name":[2],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["High Price"],"name":[3],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Month"],"name":[4],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Price"],"name":[5],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]}],"data":[{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"15","3":"15.0","4":"9","5":"13.500"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"18","3":"18.0","4":"9","5":"16.200"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"18","3":"18.0","4":"10","5":"16.200"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"17","3":"17.0","4":"10","5":"15.300"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"15","3":"15.0","4":"10","5":"13.500"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"18","3":"18.0","4":"10","5":"16.200"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"17","3":"17.0","4":"10","5":"15.300"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"17","3":"18.5","4":"10","5":"15.975"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"15","3":"15.0","4":"10","5":"13.500"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"17","3":"17.0","4":"10","5":"15.300"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"17","3":"18.5","4":"10","5":"15.975"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"15","3":"15.0","4":"10","5":"13.500"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"17","3":"17.0","4":"10","5":"15.300"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"17","3":"18.5","4":"10","5":"15.975"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"15","3":"15.0","4":"10","5":"13.500"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"16","3":"17.0","4":"10","5":"14.850"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"16","3":"18.0","4":"10","5":"15.300"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"18","3":"18.0","4":"9","5":"16.200"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"16","3":"16.0","4":"9","5":"14.400"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"18","3":"18.0","4":"9","5":"16.200"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"16","3":"16.0","4":"9","5":"14.400"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"16","3":"16.0","4":"9","5":"14.400"},{"1":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","2":"16","3":"16.0","4":"9","5":"14.400"},{"1":"1/2 bushel cartons","2":"18","3":"18.0","4":"9","5":"36.000"},{"1":"1/2 bushel cartons","2":"15","3":"15.0","4":"9","5":"30.000"},{"1":"1/2 bushel cartons","2":"18","3":"18.0","4":"10","5":"36.000"},{"1":"1/2 bushel cartons","2":"15","3":"15.0","4":"10","5":"30.000"},{"1":"1/2 bushel cartons","2":"17","3":"17.0","4":"10","5":"34.000"},{"1":"1/2 bushel cartons","2":"15","3":"15.0","4":"10","5":"30.000"},{"1":"1/2 bushel cartons","2":"15","3":"18.0","4":"10","5":"33.000"}],"options":{"columns":{"min":{},"max":[10]},"rows":{"min":[10],"max":[10]},"pages":{}}}
</script>
</div>
<p>Now, we can analyze the pricing per unit based on their bushel
measurement. All this study of bushels of pumpkins, however, goes to
show how very <code>important</code> it is to
<code>understand the nature of your data</code>!</p>
<blockquote>
<p>✅ According to <a href="https://www.thespruceeats.com/how-much-is-a-bushel-1389308">The
Spruce Eats</a>, a bushel’s weight depends on the type of produce, as
it’s a volume measurement. “A bushel of tomatoes, for example, is
supposed to weigh 56 pounds… Leaves and greens take up more space with
less weight, so a bushel of spinach is only 20 pounds.” It’s all pretty
complicated! Let’s not bother with making a bushel-to-pound conversion,
and instead price by the bushel. All this study of bushels of pumpkins,
however, goes to show how very important it is to understand the nature
of your data!</p>
<p>✅ Did you notice that pumpkins sold by the half-bushel are very
expensive? Can you figure out why? Hint: little pumpkins are way pricier
than big ones, probably because there are so many more of them per
bushel, given the unused space taken by one big hollow pie pumpkin.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Now lastly, for the sheer sake of adventure 💁‍♀️, let’s also move the
Month column to the first position i.e <code>before</code> column
<code>Package</code>.</p>
<p><code>dplyr::relocate()</code> is used to change column
positions.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb19"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb19-1"><a href="#cb19-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># Create a new data frame new_pumpkins</span></span>
<span id="cb19-2"><a href="#cb19-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>new_pumpkins <span class="ot">&lt;-</span> new_pumpkins <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb19-3"><a href="#cb19-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">relocate</span>(Month, <span class="at">.before =</span> Package)</span>
<span id="cb19-4"><a href="#cb19-4" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb19-5"><a href="#cb19-5" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>new_pumpkins <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb19-6"><a href="#cb19-6" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">slice_head</span>(<span class="at">n =</span> <span class="dv">7</span>)</span></code></pre></div>
<div data-pagedtable="false">
<script data-pagedtable-source type="application/json">
{"columns":[{"label":["Month"],"name":[1],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Package"],"name":[2],"type":["chr"],"align":["left"]},{"label":["Low Price"],"name":[3],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["High Price"],"name":[4],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["Price"],"name":[5],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]}],"data":[{"1":"9","2":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","3":"15","4":"15","5":"13.5"},{"1":"9","2":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","3":"18","4":"18","5":"16.2"},{"1":"10","2":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","3":"18","4":"18","5":"16.2"},{"1":"10","2":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","3":"17","4":"17","5":"15.3"},{"1":"10","2":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","3":"15","4":"15","5":"13.5"},{"1":"10","2":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","3":"18","4":"18","5":"16.2"},{"1":"10","2":"1 1/9 bushel cartons","3":"17","4":"17","5":"15.3"}],"options":{"columns":{"min":{},"max":[10]},"rows":{"min":[10],"max":[10]},"pages":{}}}
</script>
</div>
<p>Good job!👌 You now have a clean, tidy dataset on which you can build
your new regression model!</p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="data-visualization-with-ggplot2" class="section level2">
<h2>4. Data visualization with ggplot2</h2>
<div class="figure">
<img src="data:image/png;base64,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
<p class="caption">Infographic by Dasani Madipalli</p>
</div>
<p>There is a <em>wise</em> saying that goes like this:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>“The simple graph has brought more information to the data analyst’s
mind than any other device.” — John Tukey</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Part of the data scientist’s role is to demonstrate the quality and
nature of the data they are working with. To do this, they often create
interesting visualizations, or plots, graphs, and charts, showing
different aspects of data. In this way, they are able to visually show
relationships and gaps that are otherwise hard to uncover.</p>
<p>Visualizations can also help determine the machine learning technique
most appropriate for the data. A scatterplot that seems to follow a
line, for example, indicates that the data is a good candidate for a
linear regression exercise.</p>
<p>R offers a number of several systems for making graphs, but <a href="https://ggplot2.tidyverse.org/index.html"><code>ggplot2</code></a>
is one of the most elegant and most versatile. <code>ggplot2</code>
allows you to compose graphs by <strong>combining independent
components</strong>.</p>
<p>Let’s start with a simple scatter plot for the Price and Month
columns.</p>
<p>So in this case, we’ll start with <a href="https://ggplot2.tidyverse.org/reference/ggplot.html"><code>ggplot()</code></a>,
supply a dataset and aesthetic mapping (with <a href="https://ggplot2.tidyverse.org/reference/aes.html"><code>aes()</code></a>)
then add a layers (like <a href="https://ggplot2.tidyverse.org/reference/geom_point.html"><code>geom_point()</code></a>)
for scatter plots.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb20"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb20-1"><a href="#cb20-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># Set a theme for the plots</span></span>
<span id="cb20-2"><a href="#cb20-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="fu">theme_set</span>(<span class="fu">theme_light</span>())</span>
<span id="cb20-3"><a href="#cb20-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a></span>
<span id="cb20-4"><a href="#cb20-4" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># Create a scatter plot</span></span>
<span id="cb20-5"><a href="#cb20-5" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>p <span class="ot">&lt;-</span> <span class="fu">ggplot</span>(<span class="at">data =</span> new_pumpkins, <span class="fu">aes</span>(<span class="at">x =</span> Price, <span class="at">y =</span> Month))</span>
<span id="cb20-6"><a href="#cb20-6" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>p <span class="sc">+</span> <span class="fu">geom_point</span>()</span></code></pre></div>
<p><img src="data:image/png;base64,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
<p>Is this a useful plot 🤷? Does anything about it surprise you?</p>
<p>It’s not particularly useful as all it does is display in your data
as a spread of points in a given month.</p>
<div id="how-do-we-make-it-useful" class="section level3">
<h3><strong>How do we make it useful?</strong></h3>
<p>To get charts to display useful data, you usually need to group the
data somehow. For instance in our case, finding the average price of
pumpkins for each month would provide more insights to the underlying
patterns in our data. This leads us to one more <strong>dplyr</strong>
flyby:</p>
<div id="dplyrgroup_by-summarize" class="section level4">
<h4><code>dplyr::group_by() %&gt;% summarize()</code></h4>
<p>Grouped aggregation in R can be easily computed using</p>
<p><code>dplyr::group_by() %&gt;% summarize()</code></p>
<ul>
<li><p><code>dplyr::group_by()</code> changes the unit of analysis from
the complete dataset to individual groups such as per month.</p></li>
<li><p><code>dplyr::summarize()</code> creates a new data frame with one
column for each grouping variable and one column for each of the summary
statistics that you have specified.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>For example, we can use the
<code>dplyr::group_by() %&gt;% summarize()</code> to group the pumpkins
into groups based on the <strong>Month</strong> columns and then find
the <strong>mean price</strong> for each month.</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb21"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb21-1"><a href="#cb21-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># Find the average price of pumpkins per month</span></span>
<span id="cb21-2"><a href="#cb21-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>new_pumpkins <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span></span>
<span id="cb21-3"><a href="#cb21-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">group_by</span>(Month) <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb21-4"><a href="#cb21-4" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">summarise</span>(<span class="at">mean_price =</span> <span class="fu">mean</span>(Price))</span></code></pre></div>
<div data-pagedtable="false">
<script data-pagedtable-source type="application/json">
{"columns":[{"label":["Month"],"name":[1],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]},{"label":["mean_price"],"name":[2],"type":["dbl"],"align":["right"]}],"data":[{"1":"8","2":"24.36667"},{"1":"9","2":"28.54438"},{"1":"10","2":"28.35524"},{"1":"11","2":"25.06721"},{"1":"12","2":"15.41250"}],"options":{"columns":{"min":{},"max":[10]},"rows":{"min":[10],"max":[10]},"pages":{}}}
</script>
</div>
<p>Succinct!✨</p>
<p>Categorical features such as months are better represented using a
bar plot 📊. The layers responsible for bar charts are
<code>geom_bar()</code> and <code>geom_col()</code>. Consult</p>
<p><code>?geom_bar</code> to find out more.</p>
<p>Let’s whip up one!</p>
<div class="sourceCode" id="cb22"><pre class="sourceCode r"><code class="sourceCode r"><span id="cb22-1"><a href="#cb22-1" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a><span class="co"># Find the average price of pumpkins per month then plot a bar chart</span></span>
<span id="cb22-2"><a href="#cb22-2" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a>new_pumpkins <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span></span>
<span id="cb22-3"><a href="#cb22-3" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">group_by</span>(Month) <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb22-4"><a href="#cb22-4" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">summarise</span>(<span class="at">mean_price =</span> <span class="fu">mean</span>(Price)) <span class="sc">%&gt;%</span> </span>
<span id="cb22-5"><a href="#cb22-5" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">ggplot</span>(<span class="fu">aes</span>(<span class="at">x =</span> Month, <span class="at">y =</span> mean_price)) <span class="sc">+</span></span>
<span id="cb22-6"><a href="#cb22-6" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">geom_col</span>(<span class="at">fill =</span> <span class="st">&quot;midnightblue&quot;</span>, <span class="at">alpha =</span> <span class="fl">0.7</span>) <span class="sc">+</span></span>
<span id="cb22-7"><a href="#cb22-7" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"></a> <span class="fu">ylab</span>(<span class="st">&quot;Pumpkin Price&quot;</span>)</span></code></pre></div>
<p><img src="data:image/png;base64,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
<p>🤩🤩This is a more useful data visualization! It seems to indicate
that the highest price for pumpkins occurs in September and October.
Does that meet your expectation? Why or why not?</p>
<p>Congratulations on finishing the second lesson 👏! You prepared your
data for model building, then uncovered more insights using
visualizations!</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
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